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la Summum bonum is a Latin expression meaning the highest or ultimate good, which was introduced by the Roman philosopher De finibus, Book II, 37ff to denote the fundamental principle on which some system of ethics is based—that is, the aim of actions, which, if consistently pursued, will lead to the best possible life. Since Cicero, the expression has acquired a secondary meaning as the essence or ultimate metaphysical principle of Goodness itself, or what Plato called the Form of the Good. These two meanings do not necessarily coincide. For example, and philosophers claimed that the 'good life' consistently aimed for pleasure, without suggesting that pleasure constituted the meaning or essence of Goodness outside the ethical sphere. In De finibus, Cicero explains and compares the ethical systems of several schools of Greek philosophy, including , , and , based on how each defines the ethical summum bonum differently.

The term was used in medieval philosophy. In the synthesis of and , the highest good is usually defined as the life of the righteous and/or the life led in communion with and according to . In , it was used to describe the ultimate importance, the singular and overriding end which human beings ought to pursue.

(2025). 9783110369007, De Gruyter.


Plato and Aristotle
's The Republic argued that, "In the world of knowledge the idea of good appears last of all, and is seen...to be the universal author of all things beautiful and right".B. Jowett trans, The Essential Plato (1999) p. 269517b–c (Stephanus) Silent contemplation was the route to appreciation of the Idea of the Good.Alexandre Kojève, Introduction to the Reading of Hegel (1980), p. 108

in his Nicomachean Ethics accepted that the target of human activity, "Must be the 'Good', that is, the supreme good.", but challenged Plato's Idea of the Good with the question: "Will one who has had a vision of the Idea itself become thereby a better doctor or general?".H, Tredennick revd, The Ethics of Aristotle (1976) p. 63 and p. 72 However, arguably at least, Aristotle's concept of the owed much to Plato's Idea of the Good.Tredennick, p. 352


Hellenic syncretism
of Alexandria harmonized the God with the unmoved mover and the Idea of the Good.J. Boardman ed., The Oxford History of the Classical World (1991) p. 703 , the philosopher, built on Plato's Good for his concept of the supreme One, while drew on to develop his eternal principle of good.Boardman, p. 705-7

Augustine of Hippo in his early writings offered the summum bonum as the highest human goal, but was later to identify it as a feature of the Christian GodJ. McWilliam, Augustine (1992) p. 152-4 in De natura boni ( On the Nature of Good, ). Augustine denies the positive existence of absolute , describing a world with as the supreme good at the center, and defining different grades of evil as different stages of remoteness from that center.

(2021). 9781793629111, Rowman & Littlefield.


Later developments
The summum bonum has continued to be a focus of attention in Western philosophy, secular and religious. replaced Plato's dialectical ascent to the Good by his own dialectical ascent to the Real.Kojève, p. 181-4

G. E. Moore placed the highest good in personal relations and the contemplation of beauty—even if not all his followers in the may have appreciated what called his "all-important distinction between 'Good on the whole' and 'Good as a whole'".Quoted in H. Lee, Virginia Woolf (1996) p. 253

The doctrine of the highest good maintained by can be seen as the fulfillment of all rational will.

(2025). 9783110369007, De Gruyter.
It is the supreme end of the will, meaning that beyond the attainment of a good will, which is moral excellence signified by abiding by the categorical imperative and pure practical reason, this is not reducible to hypothetical imperatives such as happiness. Furthermore, in virtue of the doctrine of the highest good, Kant postulates the existence of God and the eternal existence of rational agents, in order to reconcile three premises: (i) that agents are morally obligated to fully attain the highest good; (ii) that the object of an agent's obligation must be possible; (iii) that an agent's full realization of the highest good is not possible.


Judgments
Judgments on the highest good have generally fallen into four categories:
  • , when the highest good is identified with the maximum possible psychological happiness for the maximum number of people;
  • or , when the highest good is identified with ;
  • Rational , when the highest good is identified with or duty;
  • Rational eudaemonism, or tempered deontologism, when both virtue and happiness are combined in the highest good.


See also


Notes
Attribution


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